Government Primary School, Chiniot

What if boosting school attendance was as simple as sending a text? Or if improving student performance required simply sending a friendly reminder about an upcoming test? Thanks to behavioural science insights, short, well-timed nudges have been remarkably effective in addressing education related problems from South Africa to Chicago.

Behavioural science, which explores why people act the way they do, shows us that tiny changes – e.g. in how information and choices are presented can lead to big improvements. Rather than focusing only on building new schools or buying technology, behavioural science digs deeper into everyday habits, motivations, and mental shortcuts that shape how students, parents, teachers and school administrators behave.

In education, this means creating smart interventions that boost engagement, support learning, and encourage positive habits both inside and outside the classroom. In this blog, we look into how behavioural science is transforming education across the globe, and what it could mean for developing countries like Pakistan, where education systems face serious barriers but also hold enormous potential. 

Behavioural Science Frameworks: Why They Matter

Behavioural science interventions work because they target the small psychological factors that shape how people act. Instead of relying on guesswork, we use structured ways to identify what really drives or stops a behaviour.

One useful framework, known as the COM-B model, explores a person’s capability and opportunity to perform an action, and the motivation to follow through, when determining how that behaviour can be influenced.

For instance, a parent may want her child to make positive food choices, but a simple reminder, like a short text message, can help the child select a healthier option for school lunch. Behavioural science approaches, such as designing small nudges or using positive social cues, follow the same principle: small changes in the way choices are presented can lead to better choices being selected. By diagnosing behavioural barriers via such frameworks, designers ensure interventions tackle specific limitations instead of relying on guesswork. 

Motivating Students

Sometimes it’s not about how much you reward effort, but when and how you do it. A fascinating experiment in Chicago Public Schools tested whether behavioural science could help students perform better in exams. Students were given a monetary reward before the test, with one condition: it would be taken away if they underperformed. This small change in framing made all the difference. Those who faced a possible loss improved their scores by 0.12 to 0.22 standard deviations compared to students who were promised the same reward later. The takeaway is that timing and framing matter more than the size of the incentive. Immediate conditional rewards use present bias and loss aversion to motivate students who might otherwise struggle to stay focused on long term goals.

These insights are not limited to students. In many low resource classrooms, teacher motivation plays an equally critical role. Studies show that recognising teachers for effort and purpose, rather than simply offering financial incentives, can shift attitudes, reduce absenteeism, and improve student outcomes. Small and timely feedback loops build meaning and accountability, helping teachers reconnect with why they teach.

Enhancing Parent Involvement

A gentle reminder can go a long way. In South Africa’s Western Cape, local authorities tested a simple idea: sending parents short, personalised messages when their child failed to show up at an after-school centre. The messages were friendly and non-punitive, no fines, no warnings, just a prompt that said, “Your child was absent today.” Attendance rose by 39%. The power was not in technology but in empathy. 

The messages made parents feel seen and involved, turning awareness into action.

In Malawi, Dizon Ross (2019) found that when parents were clearly told how their children were performing through simple, verbal explanations, they updated their beliefs and directed time and money more effectively. Parents who understood where their children stood academically became more strategic and supportive at home.

In the United States, Bergman (2016) showed how regular text updates can transform parental engagement. Parents received weekly SMS messages about missed assignments, attendance, and grades. With this timely information, course failures dropped by 28% and attendance improved. The messages did not reveal anything new – they just made important details more visible and actionable. For many busy parents, this was the difference between being disconnected and being empowered.

Castleman and Page (2015) found similar results in early education. Their pre-kindergarten text campaign sent parents small, actionable prompts like “Read one letter in your child’s name tonight.” These micro reminders improved literacy interactions and produced learning gains equal to two or three extra months of schooling. Later, Bergman et all. (2019) showed that parents who received regular updates about missed work and low GPAs were more engaged not only with attendance but also with school meetings and follow ups. Across both studies, the insight was simple, timely and clear communication helps parents take small steps that add up to big changes.

Aligning Teachers and Parents

While parent focused nudges often work well on their own, they become even more powerful when teachers are part of the loop. UNICEF lessons from Côte d’Ivoire found that messages sent only to parents boosted attendance, but adding teacher reminders created an extra effect. This suggests that student learning thrives most when parents and teachers act together, reinforcing each other’s roles rather than working in isolation.

Taken together, these examples show that behavioural science is not about expensive technology or sweeping reforms. It is about understanding how people think and feel and designing interventions that fit that reality. Small, timely, and empathetic actions can create meaningful shifts in behaviour, helping students learn better, parents stay engaged, and teachers stay inspired.

How could this play out in Pakistan?

In South Asia, behavioural science is quietly shaping the way we think about change. From health to education, organisations are beginning to realise that information alone is not enough. How we deliver it, and when, matters just as much. 

UNICEF, for instance, has started introducing workshops across the region to help teams use behavioural insights in their programmes, aiming to improve outcomes in health, education, and nutrition. These efforts focus on understanding how social norms and gentle nudges can help people make better decisions in their everyday lives.

To date, many of application of behavioural science interventions in South Asia have focused on public health. In Sri Lanka, Olupeliyawa et al. (2008) explored how behavioural science could be integrated into medical education, showing how appropriate nudges could enhance communication skills and professionalism among future doctors. In India, a similar 2013 study highlighted the role of behavioural science in helping medical students understand social determinants of health and build empathy with patients. These examples show how behaviour-focused thinking can humanise systems that often rely only on technical fixes.

In Pakistan, applying behavioural science to education is still new but promising. A recent FCDO funded campaign, Aaj Kiya Seekha, used a behavioural framework to encourage parents to engage more actively in their children’s learning at home. The Learning and Educational Achievement in Pakistan Schools (LEAPS) project has also tested simple, low -cost interventions like report cards and parental engagement tools in rural Punjab with encouraging results.

Other studies, such as York et al. (2017) and Burgman (2015), point to the power of technology -based nudges like automated calls or SMS reminders to support education programmes. These digital prompts can make learning feel more personal and consistent, but their impact depends heavily on trust and cultural fit. A message that feels unfamiliar or impersonal can easily lose its influence, especially in close knit communities.

Let’s break down how these interventions can be used in this context.

• SMS nudges: Take a simple text message. Short, local-language messages like “Your child missed 3 days this month, most children attend regularly” can boost attendance, especially in urban areas with better phone access. These messages use social norms and timely reminders to nudge parents into action. In rural areas, where access and literacy are lower, these SMS nudges could be paired with verbal or visual tools to reach everyone effectively.

• Clear performance reporting: Sometimes, seeing progress is just as motivating as a nudge for parents. Simple report cards, increased parent-teacher meetings and community presence of the schools help parents understand their child’s learning and encourage them to support education at home. Parents often feel disconnected and overwhelmed from their child’s schooling. Feedback builds confidence, trust, and engagement, helping parents to feel empowered to help rather than overwhelmed.

• Small, timed rewards for students: In exam-focused contexts like Pakistan’s matriculation system, giving students small, immediate incentives like praise certificates handed out in advance but kept only if effort is sustained, can motivate them to focus. This uses loss aversion to combat present bias, where short-term comfort often wins over long-term goals.

• Home-learning reminders: For younger kids, simple activity-based messages sent to parents can support learning outside the classroom. For example, weekly prompts like “Ask your child to name 3 things they saw on the way home” help build vocabulary and memory. These nudges don’t require devices and empower parents to be active participants, even in low-literacy settings.

Behavioural science reminds us that people don’t always make perfectly logical choices, especially when facing poverty, stress, or uncertainty. By designing interventions that fit local realities, testing them, and adapting accordingly, Pakistan’s education system can become fairer, more effective, and better at reaching those who need it most.

Lessons from the Field

A recent DARE-RC study in District Chiniot, Punjab aims to test the application of behavioural science interventions in reducing dropout rates between classes 5 and 6. It also examines whether frameworks like the COM-B can yield useful insights in Pakistan, despite being developed and validated in the West. Although in early stages, the study has already provided valuable insights into the application of COM-B, and the decision matrix that pre-empts parents’ enrolment decisions: 

• Contextualising data collection using interpretive methods: When low-literacy rural parents were asked to respond to statements using a 1 to 5 scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree, many found it confusing. Some selected only the first or last option, while others relied on what they thought the enumerator wanted to hear. This did not mean they lacked opinions, but rather that the format did not align with their preferred way of expressing themselves. Numeric scales often feel abstract or distant from everyday language, making it harder to capture genuine responses. The research team thus developed an interpretive matrix, translating gestures, expressions and intonation as used by parents who were largely unable to read or write. This matrix was used by field staff to code responses into a Likert-type scale, amendable to statistical analysis. 
• Effective utilisation of the COM-B framework to integrate evidence for intervention development: Application of the COM-B framework highlighted high parental motivation for continuing children’s education, but low capability and opportunity to carry out the enrolment process, suggesting that interventions that aimed to increase capability and opportunity could improve enrolment outcomes. 
• Distinctive underlying factor composition in the Chiniot dataset: Exploratory factor analysis to uncover latent patterns in the data showed that other scales appeared to be manifest more strongly than they did in Western applications. These included parental support skills – capturing parents’ ability to actively engage with and support their child’s education, and financial responsibility – representing parents’ perceived ability and commitment to financially support their child’s education. Rather than distinct capability, opportunity, and motivation components, we found integrated factors that combined elements across these dimensions.

Conclusion

Behavioural science is powerful because it helps explain why people act the way they do. But in Pakistan’s rural context, it must go employ creative approaches to channel the localised context and capture cultural nuance. In so doing, behavioural science can help design practical, inclusive solutions that reflect how people really think, decide, and live. 

The evidence is unequivocal – behavioural science gives us a fresh approach to solving education problems by understanding why students, parents and teachers make certain choices. It helps us see the mix of emotions, skills, and perceptions that shape these decisions. When paired with simple digital tools – such as SMS, phone calls, or app-based reminders – these insights can make interventions scalable and affordable, while staying rooted in local realities.

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Authors: Khadija Hammad (Communications associate, Middle School Transition Project, DARE-RC), Ayaan Rauf (Intern, Middle School Transition Project, DARE-RC), and Dr. Zainab Latif (Thematic Lead, DARE-RC)

This blog is based on the DARE-RC research study ‘Exploring the Implementation Challenges of Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs) in Pakistan.

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“All students can learn and succeed, but not on the same day, in the same way.”
— William G. Spady (contributed by Dr Muhammad Ilyas Khan)

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A System in Transition

For many years, teaching and learning in Pakistan have relied heavily on textbook memorisation and recall-based examinations. While this approach helps students remember information, it does not accommodate the diversity with which young people learn, nor does it always show whether they understand concepts or can apply them. Recognising these limitations, we would hope that the policymakers in Pakistan have been seeking ways to make learning expectations clearer and more meaningful.

As part of this effort, Pakistan introduced Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs) into its national curriculum. An SLO is a clear statement describing what a student should know and be able to do by the end of a lesson or unit. For example, instead of stating “Teach Chapter 5,” an SLO might specify that “students will be able to explain the process of photosynthesis.” The Single National Curriculum (SNC) now updated as the Pakistan National Curriculum 2022–23 incorporates SLOs across all subjects and grade levels, aiming to shift the focus from coverage of content to the achievement of learning.

This policy shift represents an effort to make teaching more focused on knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Where the Challenges Appear

Although SLOs are now part of curriculum documents, implementation in schools has not been consistent. Studies examining ‘Pakistan National Curriculum 2022-23’ alignment show gaps between written SLOs, textbooks, assessments, and classroom practice.

Teachers and principals are aware that the system is moving toward SLO-based teaching and assessment, but many report that they do not have the training or tools needed to apply SLOs in their daily classroom practices (Dayan, 2025). 

During our research project workshops and field visits, teachers raised practical questions such as:

• How to plan a lesson using SLOs
• How to break an SLO into teachable steps 
• How to design classroom activities aligned with SLOs
• How to create assessments that measure SLOs rather than memorisation

Because of this lack of guidance, many teachers continue using traditional and thus familiar methods even as policy expectations have changed.

Our Project: Understanding the Transition

Our research project aims to examine how the transition to SLO-based education is being experienced at the school level in practical terms. To do this, we are working across several areas:

1. Reviewing Global and National Understandings of SLOs

We have begun reviewing international literature on outcomes-based education and are studying Pakistan’s curriculum documents, including the National Curriculum Framework and ‘Pakistan National Curriculum 2022-23’. The purpose is to clearly identify the role (or absence) of SLOs as key components of the curriculum.

2. Examining Curriculum Frameworks, Exam Papers and Policies

We are in the process of reviewing selected exam papers, assessment policies and curriculum frameworks. This will help us understand how SLOs are being interpreted in practice and whether assessments and textbooks reflected the curriculum intentions. Based on a scoping review of SLO case studies globally we suspect that there will be partial alignment i.e. SLOs will be theoretically presented in documents, without much clarity on classroom practice or assessment (Khan and Khalid, forthcoming).

There is clear indication through anecdotal evidence that while SLOs are a formal requirement, the system has not yet provided enough practical support to help teachers apply them.

3. Listening to Teachers, Principals and System Actors

We organised an initial workshop for researchers and enumerators, which also included teachers, principals, examiners, paper-checkers, and representatives from curriculum and examination boards. These sessions covered:

• The concept of SLOs
• Research ethics
• Safeguarding
• Project methodology

During discussions and later fieldwork, participants consistently reported that although SLOs appear in curriculum documents, there has been limited support for teachers on how to use them. Many teachers described the shift as occurring without corresponding professional development or changes to school processes.

Developing a Practical Teacher Resource

During our project’s workshops and field visits, teachers raised practical questions for example, their incapacity to implement SLO based teaching due to limited training (Ahmad and Khalid, forthcoming). This experience taught us that what seems to be missing is a simplified understanding of what we have called, the ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ of this SLO shift. Once it is clear what SLO based education is it becomes clearer why it is needed and then one can move towards how to do this in regular teaching.  

To address this issue, we decided to create a simplified SLO resource for teachers and principals titled ‘Teacher Training Companion’ for Teachers. In the resource we target teachers and principals of class 9 and 10. The only aspect that makes it specific to these levels is that we use examples from the English and Mathematics curriculum to demonstrate how to implement SLOs. This output was not part of the initial plan of our project but rather emerged as a need which would address gaps and provide support to frontline educators. The aim of this resource is to give teachers a simple, practical guide that explains:

• What are SLOs? 
• How to interpret an SLO
• How to plan lessons aligned with SLOs
• How to select or design classroom activities
• How to assess student performance based on SLOs
• How to provide feedback linked to SLOs

The resource is designed to be straightforward and easy to use, with examples drawn from the current curriculum.

Who Developed the Resource?

The research work was conducted by Ms Nafeesa Mir Zaman, and Mr Shahbaz Jahangir. The initial drafting was done by Dr Shakil Ahmad, under the supervision of Dr Muhammad Ilyas Khan and Dr Hameedah Sayani. The resource was then finalised by Dr Irfan Ullah, who has experience in SLO-related teaching and resource development and will be the main educator for the delivery of the workshops that will follow. The process was supervised by myself (Dr. Aliya Khalid – Study Principal Investigator) and Dr Hafiz Muhammad Inamullah (Co – Principal Investigator).

Next Steps

The Secretary of Elementary and Secondary Education, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has asked our team to build on this work by developing a 15-day online training course for thousands of teachers across the province. This programme will use the expanded version of the ‘Teacher Training Companion’ and is expected to take place in early 2026.

On 15 December 2025, we will conduct a training workshop to introduce the resource to teachers, principals, and education experts. After the launch, the resource pack will be available on the DARE-RC website for wider use.

Conclusion

Pakistan’s move toward SLO-based education is a significant policy change. Curriculum documents clearly outline SLOs, but many teachers still need support in applying them in classrooms. Our research project under DARE-RC aims to help address this gap by providing practical tools and guidance. The ‘Teacher Training Companion’ and planned training sessions are steps toward helping teachers use SLOs more effectively in their daily work.

References

Ahmad, S. M., & Khalid, A. (Under consideration). HSSC 2025 Results: A Hard Reality Check for Examinations and Schooling in KP. The Frontier Post.

Dayan, U. (2025, September 20). Student Learning Outcome based Education and Pakistan. Daily Aaj.

Ilyas Khan, M., & Khalid, A. (Under review). From ‘Traditional’ to ‘Student Learning Outcomes’-Based Education in Pakistan: A Shift without a Paradigm Shift? DAWN Pakistan.

Authors: Dr Aliya Khalid (Senior Departmental Lecturer in Comparative and International Education, Department of Education, University of Oxford), Dr Hafiz Muhammad Inamullah (Director/Professor, Institute of Education and Research, University of Peshawar, Dr Hameedah Sayani (Senior Lecturer & Director CPD at Government Elementary College Hussainabad (Adopted by Durbeen)), Dr Shakeel Ahmad (Finance Manager, Institute of Education and Research University of Peshawar). Dr Shakil Ahmad (Principal, Elementary and Secondary Education, KP), Ms Nafeesa Mir Zaman (PhD Research Scholar, Institute of Education and Research University of Peshawar), Mr Shahbaz Jahangir (PhD Research Scholar, Institute of Education and Research University of Peshawar), Dr Irfan Ullah (Principal, Pak-Turk Maarif International Schools and Colleges Peshawar Campus, KP)

Editor and Quality Assurance: Dr Sahar Shah (Senior Research Manager, DARE-RC)

Copy-Editor: Maryam Beg Mirza (Assistant Consultant, Education at OPM)

This blog series is based on a DARE-RC research project based in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Islamabad Capital Territory.

Global Shifts in Education and the Move Toward Student-Centred Learning

Education has long been a global and national priority, increasingly viewed not only as a tool for individual advancement but also as a means of fostering democratic participation, social justice, and equity. The global shift toward student-centred learning can be traced to influential ideas such as John Dewey’s (1931) vision of education as a democratic practice and Paulo Freire’s (1972) advocacy for critical pedagogy. These ideas emphasised learner agency and participation, laying the foundation for approaches that foreground the learner.

Over recent decades, student-centred pedagogy has been visible across education systems worldwide. More recently, however, this shift has been embedded in a wider process of global policy alignment. Commitments made by international organisations such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), through initiatives like Education 2030 and The Future of Education and Skills 2030, have placed equity, inclusion, and learner agency at the core of education policy.

The Rise of Measurement and Evidence in Education

Alongside these global commitments, there has been a strong emphasis on evidence in education policy and practice. Ensuring equal access to quality education, both within and across countries, has required the development of measurement systems. These allow for tracking progress, setting benchmarks, and holding systems accountable.

Yet, critics argue that this emphasis often creates pressure on educational institutions to conform to a neoliberal logic of quantifiable outcomes. As a result, aspects of education that are less tangible, such as creativity, critical thinking, or social engagement, may be undervalued or overlooked. Within this complex landscape, marked by global commitments, measurement-driven accountability, and neoliberal pressures, the shift to truly student-centred education becomes both essential and deeply challenging.

Contexts of the Global South: Postcoloniality and Vulnerability

The situation becomes even more complex in the Global South, where many education systems operate within precarious contexts shaped by postcolonial legacies, environmental risks, and political instability. Education systems often face repeated disruptions, for example caused by conflict, or pandemics like COVID-19, requiring constant rebuilding. In many cases, practices such as rote learning, closely tied to colonial histories, have persisted, reinforced by structural vulnerabilities.

Nonetheless, through participation in global education dialogues and policy frameworks, countries in the Global South are engaging in meaningful reforms. In Pakistan, this has taken the form of experimenting with Student Learning Outcomes (SLO) based education. Unlike some countries where SLOs form a comprehensive national strategy, in Pakistan implementation has been uneven and selective. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT) are two regions where this shift has been most visible, which is why they form the focus of this study.

Pakistan and the Shift Toward SLO-Based Education

Since 2006, Pakistan has attempted to introduce Student Learning Outcomes as part of national efforts to improve the quality of education. SLOs define what students should know and be able to do at each stage of schooling. These goals have appeared sporadically in curriculum frameworks, policy documents, and assessment systems, particularly at the higher secondary level.

Much of the reform effort has focused on revising curricula and examinations. However, far less attention has been paid to supporting teachers in applying SLOs in their classrooms. Teachers are expected to alter both pedagogy and assessment practices, but many receive limited training or institutional support. As a result, significant gaps remain between the theoretical ambitions of learning outcomes-based education, as reflected in policy goals and curriculum documents, and the realities of everyday teaching practice.

The Study: From Policy to Practice

This project, From Policy to Practice: Understanding Teachers’ Experiences with SLO-Based Education, examines how SLO reforms have been introduced and practiced in KP and ICT. The study follows the journey of SLO policy from national planning to classroom practice, with a focus on teachers’ lived experiences.

The research is organised into four phases:

1. Comparative review to understand the conceptual foundations of SLO based education: Examining Pakistan and other countries’ experiences with outcome-based education.
2. Policy and institutional analysis focused on Pakistan: Studying curriculum and examination reforms through documents and expert interviews.
3. Teacher and headteacher perspectives: Investigating classroom-level experiences, with a focus on English and Mathematics (grades 9 and 10), and interviewing headteachers for broader insights.
4. Policy dialogue: Sharing findings with stakeholders to generate realistic and actionable recommendations.

By centring teachers’ perspectives, this study aims to highlight how reforms are experienced in practice and to identify where support is most urgently needed. The findings are intended to guide policymakers, curriculum designers, and education officials in making SLO-based reforms more effective and relevant.

Series of Blogs on SLOs in Pakistan

This blog marks the start of a series authored by the study’s Senior Research Fellows who introduce different perspectives on SLO-based education in Pakistan. Each contribution focuses on a distinct angle of the reform process:

• Dr Muhammad Ilyas Khan,“SLOs-Based Education in Pakistan: A Shift Without a Paradigm Shift”, explores the tensions between the theoretical and practical aspects of SLO reforms.

• Dr Ahsan Ur Rehman, “The Role of Primary Education in Outcome-Based Education in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa”, provides institutional and expert perspectives, drawing on the experiences of education professionals in assessment, teacher training, and exam boards.

• Dr Munir Ahmad, “Shifting Mindsets: Experiences with SLO-Based Education”, highlights everyday challenges from the perspective of school headteachers. 

• Dr Uzma Dayan, “Implementing SLO-Based Education: Insights from English Language Teachers in Pakistan”, offers reflections based on informal conversations with secondary school English teachers.

Led by Principal Investigators Dr Aliya Khalid, Dr Hafiz Muhammad Inamullah and research team lead Dr Hameedah Sayani, the project team aims to spark an ongoing conversation on the potential of SLO-based education in Pakistan, exploring its promises, challenges, and possibilities for adaptation through policy and practice.

Authors: By Aliya Khalid (aliya.khalid@education.ox.ac.uk), Hafiz Muhammad Inamullah and Hameedah Sayani

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SLOs-Based Education in Pakistan: A Shift without a Paradigm Shift

By Professor Dr Muhammad Ilyas Khan

With the introduction of the concept of SLOs-Based education, or SLOs-Based assessment, there seems to have been a significant re-orientation of the school education system in Pakistan. Many consider this as a paradigm shift in the education of the country. The focus seems to have shifted away from ‘syllabus’ or ‘chapters to be covered’ to SLOs or Student Learning Outcomes to be achieved by the learners. On paper this has changed the focus from the ‘teacher’s teaching’ to the ‘learner’s learning’. In practice, however, the ‘shift’ seems more on paper and in documents, than in the real world of the student and the teacher, and the educational institutions. The origins of SLOs-Based education can be traced back to the idea of Outcomes-Based Education (OBE).

Origin of Outcomes-Based Education (OBE)

The idea of OBE has been associated with the works of educational thinkers including John Carroll (1963, 1989), Benjamin Bloom (1968), and Willaim Spady (1994),  who reshaped the way the world thought about learning and teaching. Carroll argued that all students can learn given enough time and the suitable conditions. Bloom developed the ‘mastery learning’ approach, suggesting that education should aim at achieving deeper understanding, rather than rushing through a syllabus. In the 1990s, William Spady systematised OBE, focusing the process of education on what learners should be able to do at the end of their educational experiences and then designing the system backwards from those outcomes.

These OBE ideas were paradigmatic in the sense that they aimed at a shift in the focus from teaching to learning. Teachers were now expected to ensure that students could demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and application of knowledge, and its possible transfer it to new contexts. The ultimate promise of OBE was equity: no child left behind simply because they learned at a different speed or in different ways than others.

OBE in Pakistan’s Context: A Shift Without a Paradigm Shift?

There has been an attempt in Pakistan during the previous two decades to echo this global wave of a radical shift in the focus and practice of education. The Curriculum 2006 reflected a significant attempt at introducing learning outcomes-based concepts in education. The Single National Curriculum (SNC) 2020 pushed SLOs further to the centre of discussion. The curriculum emphasised the introduction of detailed SLOs.

The main aim of the SLOs based curricula and assessment indicatives was to ensure authentic learning and assessment in educational institutions. However, like other education policy reforms in the context of Pakistan, the SLOs-based educational and assessment ideals seem to have a diluted version in practice. For instance, the focus of pedagogical practices still revolves around textbooks teaching, coverage of syllabi, and preparation of students for achieving higher grades in exams. Without proper orientations and professional development programmes, teachers might copy SLOs into lesson plans like bureaucratic checklists without real thought about how they will be taught or assessed. 

This is what could be termed as a ‘shift’ without a ‘paradigm shift’. The original philosophy of OBE is about rethinking assessment, rethinking time, and rethinking the very role of the teachers and students in the educational process. For instance, the role of teaching as envisioned in the OBE philosophy has not been radically transformed from ‘delivery of content’ to ‘facilitation of learning’.

Challenges

OBE faces several challenges in the Pakistani context when it comes to its practical implementation. Assessment practices for instance still focus on grades, marks, and rote-learning rather than on real understanding or mastery of concepts. Teachers who are the drivers of any substantial change in an education system have not been adequately prepared for this change. 

OBE demands creativity, flexibility, and differentiated teaching. But most teachers have only ever experienced traditional methods themselves, so expecting them to implement a sophisticated new philosophy overnight seems unrealistic. Creativity in this context refers to designing and implementing innovative learning experiences that enable students to demonstrate clearly defined outcomes through diverse activities and assessment methods. Flexibility is generally a teacher’s ability to adjust teaching pace, teaching strategies, and assessment approaches in line with individual learner needs. Differentiated teaching helps teachers in tailoring their instruction to the diverse needs, abilities, and learning styles of students. Traditional teaching methods, on the other hand, are often teacher centred, focus on content delivery, and structure. In traditional teaching, for instance, in a mathematics class, each student might be required to complete the same exercises and take the same test on fractions at the end of the week, regardless of whether they have developed a conceptual understanding. In an OBE the lesson may begin with a specification of measurable outcomes such as ‘students will be able to represent and compare fractions using visual models’. Such lessons may employ a variety of instructional methods, pacing, and assessments to ensure each learner reaches mastery.

While the philosophical underpinnings of OBE are compelling, its implementation poses significant challenges, particularly in developing education systems. Successful OBE implementation needs well-prepared teachers who can design outcome-aligned curricula, employ formative assessment strategies, and make use of differentiated instruction effectively. Many teachers in resource-limited contexts lack both the pedagogical training and institutional support needed to enact such complex reforms (Jansen, 1998). Large class sizes, rigid timetables, inadequate learning materials, and exam-driven accountability systems further constrain the flexibility and learner-centred focus that OBE demands.

What then is needed to incorporate the concepts of OBE and SLOs, in letter and spirit? To do so there is need for systematic professional development initiatives for teachers, and educational leaders. The proponents of OBE believed in a powerful, learner-centred vision of education. If Pakistan really wants to move from traditional to outcomes-based education, there is need for a paradigm shift in the aims, process, assessment, and outcomes of education.

Author: Dr Muhammad Ilyas Khan (Professor, Department of Education, Hazara University, Pakistan, drmuhammadilyaskhan7@gmail.com) 

Learn more about Outcome-based Education and SLO-based Education from Professor Dr Muhammad Ilyas Khan.

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The Role of Primary Education in Outcome-Based Education in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

By Dr Ahsan Ur Rehman

In the complex historical and political landscapes of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, education is often regarded as a source of opportunity. Although this project focuses on Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs), in order to explore how learning can be “measured” in a way that demonstrates conceptual understanding, the first question must address the pedagogy that underpins this concept, namely Outcome-Based Education (OBE). OBE is an approach that emphasises measurable learning outcomes over rote memorisation and has been gradually gaining importance in the context of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. This blog examines the importance of strong primary schooling as the basis for implementing OBE.

Primary education, typically spanning ages 5 to 10, forms the foundation of any educational system. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where literacy rates remain around 55% (with notable gender disparities), investment in primary education is not only beneficial but necessary. OBE shifts the emphasis from teacher-centred instruction to student-centred outcomes such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and life skills. Without a sound primary base, achieving these outcomes remains unlikely.

Research highlights how OBE supports critical thinking at the university level. However, this benefit is only realised if primary education provides the necessary skills early on. In KP, primary schools often contend with outdated curricula and limited resources, as highlighted in studies examining the relationship between budget allocations and learning outcomes. These studies indicate that sufficient funding and effective expenditure correlate directly with improved student performance, underscoring that reform at the primary level is essential for the success of OBE.

Consider the case of a child in Peshawar or Swat entering school without foundational literacy or numeracy. OBE requires students to demonstrate specific competencies, such as applying mathematics to practical contexts or working collaboratively. If primary education does not establish these basics, subsequent educational levels become significantly more challenging.

KP also faces structural barriers, including conflict-affected areas, cultural constraints on girls’ education, and teacher shortages. In this context, OBE offers a framework that emphasises inclusivity, values, and life skills, as reflected in Pakistan’s national curriculum reforms. Integrating OBE principles at the primary level could contribute to holistic development, addressing social, emotional, and intellectual growth.

Teachers’ perspectives are critical in this process. Empirical studies have shown that educators in KP are open to reforms aligned with OBE, particularly those involving updated teaching practices and curriculum design. By focusing on outcomes such as creativity and resilience, primary education can support children in underserved areas, lower dropout rates, and encourage sustained learning.

The measurable structure of OBE also allows for improved accountability. Accountability, for example, in terms of that to what extend effective teaching has been done, to what extend leaner has achieved the curriculum objectives. All the relevant data can be obtained through teacher-made and standardised tests and assessment. In KP, where primary enrolment rates are rising but quality indicators lag, tracking outcomes can help ensure resources are used effectively. This may facilitate targeted interventions, including teacher training and community engagement, which in turn could contribute to improved educational quality and equity.

The broader effects of strengthening primary education through OBE extend beyond individuals. It has implications for economic development, poverty reduction, and social stability in KP. By equipping students with relevant skills, education systems can help prepare future generations for challenges such as climate change and technological transformation.

In conclusion, primary education is not only the starting point but also the key determinant of OBE’s success in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Policymakers, educators, and communities need to prioritise reforms including increased budgets, teacher training in OBE methods, and equitable access. Evidence suggests that such investments yield long-term benefits in the form of skilled citizens and improved social outcomes.

Author: Dr Ahsan Ur Rehman (Assistant Professor, Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar

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Shifting Mindsets: Experiences with SLO-Based Education

By Dr Syed Munir Ahmad

With over three decades of experience in teaching and teacher education, my engagement with schools, and with both prospective and in-service teachers, has consistently centred on bridging the theory–practice divide. This professional journey has been guided by a deep commitment to the cause of education and to achieving meaningful student learning outcomes. The same desire for self-appraisal and improvement that gravitated me from school teaching to university teaching also opened new social, academic, and professional vistas for collaboration with national and international institutions working across diverse areas of education.

In addition to my university role, I have been serving as the Principal of the University Public School, University of Peshawar, as its eleventh principal and the first proud alumnus to lead the institution since January 2, 2024. During this time, I have sought to strengthen the school, not only through its physical uplift but also through a sustained focus on academic and professional development. In my dual role as a teacher educator and school head, I regard Continuous Professional Development (CPD) of teachers as a cornerstone of school effectiveness, closely aligned with a steady paradigm shift from traditional teacher-centred teaching to more student-centred learning, aimed at the all-round development of students across all levels, both school and college.

Breaking the Textbook Habit

When I first asked my teachers to design lesson plans around Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs), the response was cautious. For years, they had worked within a system where teaching meant “covering the textbook” and assessment meant “testing recall.” Asking them to focus on what students could do with knowledge – rather than what they could memorise – was asking them to change deeply ingrained habits.

When Policies Meet the Classroom Wall

This is the reality of Pakistan’s shift to SLO-based education. Policies and frameworks look impressive, but inside classrooms, change is slow and challenging. Teachers are not unwilling, but they are conditioned by years of routine and constrained by systemic issues. Continuous Professional Development (CPD) remains limited, class sizes are large, and student backgrounds diverse – especially in public schools where children from low-income families study alongside others. In such contexts, simply telling teachers to “teach for outcomes” is not enough.

Small Steps, Big Shifts

What has helped? Conversations, peer sharing, and gradual guidance. Some teachers began experimenting with group activities, others with questioning techniques that go beyond recall. It is slow progress, but it matters. Students, too, need time. For them, a question that requires analysis rather than reproduction often feels like it is “out of course.” Helping them unlearn old ways of studying is part of the journey.

Unlearning Rote, Embracing Understanding

I am convinced that SLOs are the right direction. They force us to ask: what knowledge, skills, and attitudes should students develop to thrive in today’s world? But for this shift to work, teachers need more than policy mandates – they need resources, training, and encouragement. Policymakers must listen to their voices, and communities must recognise the complexity of classroom realities.

From Rote to Real Learning

In public schools, the change is ongoing. It may appear imperfect, sometimes frustrating, but also full of possibility. Each small step towards outcome-based teaching is a step away from rote memorisation and towards real learning. And in that journey lies the hope for a stronger, more thoughtful generation of learners.

Author: Dr Syed Munir Ahmad (Associate Professor, Institute of Education and Research, University of Peshawar)

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Implementing SLO-Based Education: Insights from English Language Teachers in Pakistan

By Dr Uzma Dayan

The main purpose of Student Learning Outcomes (SLO) based teaching, and assessment is to foster creativity and discourage rote memorisation, enabling students to become critical and scientific thinkers rather than mere reproducers of information. This approach is pursued through core curricular subjects such as mathematics, science, languages, and social sciences. In contexts where English is taught and used both as a foreign language and as a medium of instruction, the shift from traditional practices to SLO-based education presents unique challenges. In such a situation, teachers and students face a dual task: learning English as a subject while simultaneously using it to study other disciplines for learning and examination purposes. This blog post explores the perceptions and experiences of English language teachers of SLO-based education in Pakistan. The Ministry of Education with The National Curriculum of Pakistan (2022) initiated this policy in two major regions; the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT), the federal capital, and Peshawar, the capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and one of its major cities across all school levels. 

Policy Shift and Teachers’ Readiness

The reform aimed to discourage cramming and encourage students to demonstrate conceptual understanding in examinations. Under the new system, annual intermediate exams conducted by the Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education follow a uniform SLO-based framework, with subject specialists designing papers to assess knowledge and skills rather than rote recall. As quality education depends highly upon quality training, for this policy to achieve its intended purpose, teachers, as key stakeholders and agents of change require proper pre-service and in-service training. SLO-based teaching in Pakistan emphasises clear, measurable outcomes, prioritising conceptual understanding, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills over memorisation. However, successful implementation depends not only on policy design but also on how teachers perceive, interpret, and act upon these reforms. As Ali (2006) notes, understanding the role of values, context, culture, and language in shaping learning and decision-making is essential, particularly given that resistance to change is often a natural response. 

To explore these dynamics, a scoping exercise was conducted in Islamabad and Peshawar to listen to the perspectives of teachers.  Informal interviews with 12 secondary school English language teachers provided valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities of implementing SLO-based pedagogy and assessment. Their reflections highlight both the promise of the policy and the pressing need for sustained professional development to support meaningful educational transformation.

Training Gaps Limiting Success

The conversations revealed significant gaps in the professional preparation and training of English language teachers in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. A large proportion of teachers responsible for teaching English neither possessed a degree in English language or English Language Teaching (ELT), nor had they received any form of in-service training following the introduction of the Student Learning Outcomes (SLO)-based education system. For instance, one respondent who held a degree in Business Studies and had previously worked for nine years in the banking sector was found teaching English to students of Grades 9 and 10. She described her experience as highly challenging, particularly in adapting to the SLO-based pedagogy. As she explained:

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 “I do not know how to teach students for exams in the light of SLO. Instead, I prepare them for exams based on old papers because I was never trained to frame objectives for a specific subject.”

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These experiences point to a systemic issue in the recruitment and professional development of teachers. The recruitment policy in KP currently requires only a BS or Master’s degree and success in the National Testing System (NTS) examination for induction into high schools. Neither pre-service training nor teaching certification is mandatory. Newly appointed teachers are expected to undergo compulsory nine-month induction training. However, these trainings are conducted not by universities or specialised teacher education institutions but by subject specialists from colleges and schools.

One teacher described her induction training as overly general, with little to no focus on subject-specific pedagogy or the implementation of SLO-based teaching and assessment. Similarly, a senior teacher with over 23 years of experience in the system acknowledged that her academic qualification was not in English, but she had been assigned to teach Grade 10 English. She noted that both students and teachers faced difficulties in adapting to the SLO-based framework, particularly in the absence of refresher courses or in-service training. Although she worked hard to help her students understand the material, she admitted that the process was equally demanding for her as an educator.

Trained Teachers: Successful Implementation

By contrast, teachers who had undergone pre-service training at university-affiliated teacher education institutes were found to adopt more modern and interactive pedagogical approaches. These included classroom discussions, small seminars, jigsaw activities, and other activity-based methods. Such teachers emphasised student engagement and communication in English. Nevertheless, they also faced challenges, such as students’ frequent code-switching to local languages, which hindered fluency. One teacher recommended the introduction of pre-academic English language classes to strengthen students’ linguistic foundation before they transition into mainstream English instruction.

Successful Policy Shift: Mandatory Pre-service and Refresher Training

Listening to and understanding the experiences of teachers led to three main understandings. Firstly, teachers without any training struggled the most with adapting to the SLO-based system, finding it equally difficult for themselves and their students. Secondly, senior teachers with outdated training and lack of refresher opportunities faced similar challenges due to limited exposure to new methodologies. Finally, teachers with formal pre-service training employed more effective and interactive practices, though they still encountered systemic barriers such as students’ weak English proficiency. 

Across all three, teachers stressed the need for structured professional development. The study recommends making pre-service training mandatory, introducing regular subject-specific in-service programs, and offering refresher courses for mid-career and senior teachers. Recruitment reforms are also necessary to ensure that entry into teaching depends on subject-specific competencies aligned with SLOs. This scoping exercise demonstrates that without consistent training and support, teachers and students will continue to face difficulties in bridging the gap between policy and practice in English language teaching in Pakistan.

Author: Dr Uzma Dayan (Lecturer, Institute of Education and Research, University of Peshawar)

This blog series has been copy-edited by Maryam Beg Mirza (Assistant Consultant, Education, OPM) and quality assured by Dr Sahar Shah (Senior Research Manager, DARE-RC). 

Conducting a large-scale educational research study is a complex and demanding task. While much of the spotlight often falls on findings and policy recommendations, what remains less visible, but equally crucial, is behind-the-scenes work, particularly data management. In contexts like Pakistan, where the educational research infrastructure is still developing and there is a visible push towards evidence-driven decisions, data management processes need to be standardised to ensure the quality and credibility of results. In every research project, data management should begin even before data collection starts and continue through to the final stage of analysis.

This blog draws on our experience of managing data for large-scale studies, funded by DARE-RC, focusing on student learning outcomes and classroom practices along with other aspects in various types of schools across the diverse regions of Pakistan. In each study, there were 3500+ students and 400+ teachers. The data were gathered through achievement tests, classroom observations, survey questionnaire and interviews. Operating at this scale meant confronting multiple challenges including logistical, linguistic, and technological. We discuss how the core team developed and implemented standardised data management protocols and navigated challenges of scale, standardisation, and alignment. In other words, we present an insider’s look at how we organised, coded, marked, entered, and cleaned quantitative data and transcribed and coded qualitative data to make sense of large-scale data.

Our aim is not only to document procedure, but to provoke critical reflection on the labour and care required to produce trustworthy educational evidence in the Global South. We hope this will be useful for future researchers to manage research projects.

Ax Expert’s Advice on Rigorous Data Management

The process involved four key steps for data management considering the nature of nationwide studies. These include: 1) organising datasets using encryption, 2) marking student assessments based on pre-defined answer keys, 3) entering and cleaning data using standardised SPSS templates, and 4) transcribing and coding interview data. Dedicated central teams for each study were oriented on protocols and followed a comprehensive set of procedures at each stage of data management.

Step 1: Data Organisation with Encryption

Our data management journey began immediately after completing fieldwork in the first region. Each student’s learning assessments (Science and Mathematics Achievement Tests), demographic sheet, and survey questionnaires were bundled together and assigned a unique encryption code. The same approach was followed for each teacher’s data, including teacher questionnaires and classroom observation rubrics. This “encryption” was not digital encryption in a cybersecurity sense, but rather a structured system of alphanumeric codes assigned manually to ensure anonymity and traceability.

An example of a student data code is BQG1, where B represents Balochistan, Q stands for Quetta, G denotes government school, and 1 is a unique sequential number. Similarly, an example of a teacher data code is BQGT1, where B represents Balochistan, Q stands for Quetta, G denotes government school, T indicates teacher, and 1 is the unique sequential number.

These individual-level documents were then organised into labelled ‘school packs’ to enable easy access and quick referencing. To ensure that teacher data could be linked with student outcomes, we developed an Excel-based tracking sheet, aligning each teacher’s code with the codes assigned to their students, as presented in the image below. This system allowed us to synchronise datasets efficiently and prepare them for merging at later stages.

Image displaying data organisation on an Excel sheet

Step 2: Marking Student Assessments with Reliability

Assessing students’ performance in achievement tests, particularly constructed response questions, requires careful attention to consistency and fairness. To standardise the marking process, we developed detailed answer keys and trained all research assistants involved in assessment scoring. Additionally, we ensured that assessors had subject-matter knowledge as well as language proficiency.

Initial assessment was carried out collaboratively for a subset of schools, allowing the team to calibrate their approach and resolve any discrepancies. Monitoring by the core team was a consistent feature of the marking process in order to maintain quality. We also assessed inter-marker reliability, which refers to the consistency with which different evaluators score the same test responses. To ensure fairness and accuracy, we established a threshold of at least 80% agreement between markers before proceeding to mark test papers independently. This reliability did not emerge spontaneously; it was sustained through regular audits and mandatory random rechecking of papers before data entry.

Step 3: Structured Data Entry and Cleaning

Separate databases for student and teacher data were created using SPSS (v27). A shared SPSS template with a fixed variable structure was developed to maintain consistency. This structure specified uniform variable names, labels, and coding schemes (e.g., for student demographics, questionnaire, test, teacher characteristics, and classroom practices), ensuring that data from different sources could be entered and analysed in a standardised way. Centrally hired research assistants, trained by the core team, were assigned grade-specific responsibilities for student data entry. Teacher data, being more manageable, was entered by a single person to ensure uniformity and reduce variability.

We enforced a strict protocol prohibiting any changes to the variable structure in the SPSS template without prior approval from the core team. This protocol ensured consistency in the datasets, which in turn made it easier to merge data entered across different grade levels. Data entry was complemented with routine random spot checks to immediately identify and correct any errors. 

Before data analysis, comprehensive data cleaning for the entire data was carried out soon after the completion of the data entry process of both sets of data by running frequencies of each variable and rectifying emerging errors. Since, we had multiple data files, and it is essential to merge them together. Both the data sets (i.e., students’ assessment data and classroom observation data) were merged in a single file in order to make them ready for statistical analysis. After merging the data sets, the complete data set was double-checked in order to ensure that the observation data of teachers are placed appropriately with respective students’ test scores.

Step 4: Managing and Analysing Qualitative Data

The qualitative component of one of the studies explored how teachers conceptualise and implement participatory teaching strategies. With informed consent, all twenty-one interviews, ranging from 45 to 60 minutes, were audio-recorded and transcribed in their original languages to preserve contextual accuracy. Selected quotations were later translated into English for use in reporting. The analysis involved a multi-phase process, including, 1) open coding to identify meaningful segments; 2) categorisation of similar codes; and 3) theme development to synthesise emerging patterns.Two research assistants were trained and tasked with independently coding each transcript. Their individual codebooks and coded transcripts were reviewed by a third senior research assistant to ensure accuracy and consistency. This triangulated approach yielded an inter-coder reliability score of 80%, considered acceptable in qualitative research. The lead researcher from core team subsequently grouped open codes into categories and developed themes, which were used in the final analysis and reporting.

Good Data for Enhanced Credibility 

Our experience offers several key lessons for researchers managing large-scale datasets. 

First, data management should begin early, ideally during the planning phase, rather than after data collection has concluded. Second, establishing standardised procedures, such as using uniform templates and shared coding systems, reduces errors and improves consistency across teams. Third, investing in training is critical, as research assistants require structured guidance and oversight to maintain data quality. Fourth, transparent communication within the team fosters collaboration and supports data integrity throughout the process. Finally, while adherence to protocols is essential, teams must remain flexible and responsive to unforeseen challenges during data management.

In a nutshell, data management may not be the most visible part of research, but it is undoubtedly one of the most essential. In large-scale studies, where the risk of error is amplified, a careful, transparent, and collaborative approach to handling data can significantly enhance the quality and credibility of research findings. By prioritising robust data management practices, we not only strengthen the integrity of our evidence but also uphold the standards of responsible and ethical research.

Authors: Aisha Naz Ansari (Research Specialist, Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development (AKU-IED), Sohail Ahmad (PhD Candidate, University of Cambridge), Dr Sadia Muzaffar Bhutta (Associate Professor at AKU-IED), and Dr Sajid Ali (Professor at AKU-IED)

Editor and Quality Assurance: Dr Sahar Shah (Senior Research Manager, DARE-RC)

Copy-Editor: Maryam Beg Mirza (Assistant Consultant, Education at OPM) 

Design: Sparkom Media

The views expressed in this blog are that of the authors and do not reflect the views of DARE-RC, the FCDO, and implementing partners

We joined the Education World Forum to explore how global education systems are navigating AI, funding gaps, and the future of skills. The Education World Forum is one of the most influential global gatherings in education policy, bringing together ministers, funders, and thought leaders to debate the most pressing challenges facing education systems today. Now in its 21st year, EWF 2025 featured an impressive gathering of over 1000 delegates including Education and Skills Ministers from 135 countries across the world, ranging from the most developed economies to low-and lower middle-income countries. From artificial intelligence and digital transformation to education financing and the future of vocational skills, the forum offers a rare opportunity to hear first-hand how governments and partners are shaping the future of learning worldwide.

This year’s forum surfaced a strong consensus: education systems are under pressure to adapt—and fast. With a growing funding gap, accelerating technological change, and an urgent need to equip learners for an uncertain labour market, the global education agenda is shifting. But how are different countries responding, and what lessons might apply more broadly to international development?

Digital transformation in education

One of the most talked-about topics was how education systems are navigating digital transformation. Governments are asking difficult but necessary questions: How do we harness the benefits of new technologies while keeping learners at the centre? How do we ensure equal access? And what role should artificial intelligence play in the classroom?

National strategies varied. China shared a vision for intelligent education, the UK voiced a commitment to develop generative AI guidelines, and Finland highlighted efforts to limit digital device use in schools to better support students’ social development. Several countries also raised concerns about the digital divide and called for urgent investment in devices and connectivity.

What stood out was the shared recognition that while digital tools are essential, they are not a substitute for teachers. Relationships, empathy, and human connection remain core to learning, and technology must support, not replace those elements.

Investing in teachers, enhancing the appeal of the teaching profession, reducing excessive workload and improving working conditions, and offering ongoing peer-based professional learning opportunities to teachers are some of the most impactful solutions adopted by the world’s highest performing education systems. Equally, understanding how children learn best, cultivating a ‘growth mindset’ in all students, and focusing on learning both inside and outside the classroom, has demonstrated transformative results across individual students, schools and education systems.

Our Principal Consultant, Saima Anwer, (third from right) with Wajiha Qamar, Minister of State at the Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training (fourth from right), Maria Wyard, Group Head Health, Education and Demography British High Commission Islamabad (fifth from right), and other members of the Pakistan delegation 

Rethinking education financing

Another central theme was how to address the global education funding gap, now estimated at $97 billion. There was widespread agreement that education is not a short-term cost but a long-term investment. Ministers and donors alike emphasised the need to unlock more resources and make better use of existing ones.

Innovative solutions featured prominently, including impact investing, blended finance, and debt swaps. Encouragingly, the private sector and philanthropic foundations are showing greater interest in education as a viable investment area, not just a social obligation.

At the same time, with more than 70% of funding still coming from governments, public finance remains critical. Many speakers called for greater efficiency, stronger evidence, and smarter spending to ensure funds reach those who need them most.

The future of skills and vocational education

Another prominent theme discussed throughout the conference was skills and vocational education, highlighting its potential to drive inclusive economic growth. Speakers stressed that vocational training should not be viewed as a fallback option, but as a first-choice route to high-quality employment.

Changing perceptions will require deliberate action. Countries shared examples of partnering with industry to shape curricula, investing in modern training centres, and building prestige around vocational pathways. Practical measures included income-contingent loans, employer-backed national training funds, and lifelong learning policies that extend beyond the classroom.

As one panellist put it: “We used to learn to do our work. Now, learning is the work.” This shift requires systems that support continual upskilling and reskilling in response to a changing world.

Why this matters

The discussions at the Education World Forum reflected a growing convergence around key priorities for education systems: responsible integration of digital technologies, sustainable financing models, and the need to align skills development with evolving labour market demands.

For those working on policy reform and systems strengthening, these insights offer a comparative view of how different countries are approaching common challenges. They also underscore the importance of cross-sector collaboration and the role of evidence in designing adaptive, inclusive education policies.

_{The views expressed in this blog are that of the author and do not reflect the views of DARE-RC, the FCDO, and implementing partners.}

With the world’s largest population of out-of-school children, Pakistan is facing an education emergency that will have far-reaching consequences in economic, social, and health development for at least the next two generations. Addressing this issue is challenging because education is chronically underfunded in Pakistan, with only 1.9% of GDP spent on education in 2023. In comparison, India, Afghanistan, and China all spend 4% or more of their GDP on education.

Pakistan faces numerous development challenges that are expected to intensify as the economy continues to struggle, climate change worsens and concerns about a global recession escalate. How, then, do policymakers prioritise limited financial and human resources to maximise school enrolment?

Our team is working on the Equity Equation Project: Predictive Modelling of Policy Impact on School Enrolment, under DARE-RC. This study aims to develop agent-based simulation models (ABM) that predict school enrolment decisions made by families facing marginalisation in response to policies in education and other sectors. As part of initial investigations, the team has completed a literature review on push and pull factors that create barriers to school enrolment. The team has also analysed publicly available data from Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) 2019-2020 and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) 2017-2018 to identify individual and household level factors that are highly predictive of school enrolment.

Push and Pull Factors for School Access

Our team conducted a literature review that revealed a number of factors within a child’s life which influence school enrolment. These include children’s immediate family, community, social, and national environments. We examined the literature across various contexts, particularly in the Global South, to identify barriers to education. These include push factors, or school-related challenges to enrolment, such as a shortage of schools, and schools that do not support disability, have poor teaching, and insufficient facilities. Conversely, pull factors are external and contextual barriers to education, such as financial and family needs, climate crises, or sociocultural expectations. We were able to organise these factors into an ecological systems theory model (EST), teasing them out to understand the intersections of barriers across several layers of influence, ranging from the individual level (microsystem) to the time-bound and historical level (chronosystem).

Push and Pull Factors that Create Barriers to School Access Using EST

Credit: Shahbakht Mubarik, Senior Education Research Associate, Equity Education Project

The literature revealed that two cross-cutting barriers impact school enrolment: gender discrimination and poverty. These affect school enrolment at every ecological system level from the individual family to large-scale national policies. Gender discrimination can be seen in policies that do not protect or value women in the workforce, in community narratives around women’s education, and in household decision to restrict girls’ participation in education. Economic poverty also has a similar impact. It leads to limited funds for school expenses, creates low levels of investment on basic education, inhibits access to important technological learning tools in remote communities, and forces families to put their children in the labour market to ensure everyone has enough to eat.

These barriers to school enrolment are well-explored in the global literature and are clear. We further wanted to explore how these various factors predict access to education within Pakistan’s context, and which predictive factors rank the highest.

What Really Determines Enrolment?

We conducted predictive analyses with neural networks and random forests using the MICS data for the Lahore division and the PSLM data for the Nankana, Lahore, Kasur, and Sheikhupura districts. Random forest models generated the most accurate predictions on school enrolment, with around 90% accuracy on the MICS and 83-85% accuracy on PSLM, depending on the district. We ranked the importance of each factor in predicting school enrolment, and the interaction of features in predicting access to education by using SHAP decomposition in tandem with the trained models.

Interestingly, our initial predictive analysis revealed that the proxies for socioeconomic status (SES) predict access to education, specifically mobile phone ownership, household wealth, and parental education. In the MICS survey, we ranked some of the most important features that included whether the child enjoys reading, parental education, household wealth, and disability status, among others.

MICS Lahore Division SHAP Feature Importance Plot for School Enrolment for 5-16 Year Olds

PSLM was more granular and enabled us to look for changes across districts within the Lahore division. We saw similar trends suggesting that access to food, housing, heating, water, and WASH facilities in the home predicted school enrolment (though proxies for these changed over the districts). This indicates that SES remained a crucial predictive factor even as the context changed.  

Only in Nankana was gender an important predictor of educational access.

PSLM Kasur District SHAP Feature Importance Plot for School Enrolment for 5-16 Year Olds

While we certainly expected to see many proxies for SES as highly ranked features, we anticipated that some of the other diverse barriers and enablers from the literature review would also be included, particularly gender. In the face of so many SES proxies, other features simply did not rank in the top 20 features as often or at all.

The Big Questions

Our research team is deeply committed to several core values and ideas, one being that evidence-informed decision-making is one of our strongest enabling tools for making positive changes. Considering how important the poverty indicator is in both the literature and the secondary predictive analyses; we considered possible implications:

What if the most critical key to enrolment is centred on alleviating poverty, while providing access to education through better schools, better roads, addressing cultural barriers, etc. is secondary?

In answering these questions, we keep in mind that data-use experts emphasise that understanding data limitations is key to making evidence-informed decisions. We revisited the literature and the available secondary data, probing for assumptions and missing information, which helped us identify data gaps that we hope to close in our study. Given the high accuracy of our current models on test data, incorporating additional factors may yield diminishing improvements in predictive performance. We have outlined some of these gaps and their suggested areas of investigation.

Missing Data: First, not all factors found in the literature are captured in the secondary survey data. For example, the literature says that safe, reliable, and affordable transportation is an important enabling factor for school enrolment, but the PSLM and MICS data does not provide information on the relative availability of nearby schools or transportation to a school. Attitudes and experiences related to concerns for gender-based safety are not included in these surveys, nor are the perceptions of local schools.

We hope to uncover the community-level importance of factors found in the literature which lack consolidated data. We also believe this will help us suggest important data points for future collection and analysis to our partners, particularly the Pakistan Institute of Education (PIE).

Intersections and Directionality of the Data: Predictive analysis using neural networks allows us to rank the importance of factors non-parametrically, capturing complex feature interactions and how they influence the outcome. However, there is a limit to this analysis. While the interactions of multiple factors (student’s gender, type of housing, food security, etc.) and their resulting outcomes are captured in the models, we cannot visualise how they interact with each other. For example, how do multiple indicators of socioeconomic status interact with gender to influence outcomes? Our predictive analysis can only tell us that they interact, not how. As a result, our ability to explain complex multi-dimensional interactions is limited.

The study uses primary qualitative data at the family level to unpack and deentangle how these factors interact to influence decision-making for school enrolment.

Granularity of the Data: While the MICS data is representative at the division level, the PSLM data allowed for a more granular look at the districts within the Lahore division. It also revealed some differences between how important features change from district to district. How would features change if we could move to an even smaller administrative unit such as the tehsil or union council?  If we were to look at communities that have high levels of religious and linguistic minorities, how would the results be different? The literature reveals that these demographic differences create an intersectionality of experiences, pressures, and push and pull factors that may influence school enrolment decisions. Therefore, the ability to examine such communities would give insight into how these intersections impact decision-making.

Our team will carefully select sites having historically marginalised communities and conduct qualitative data collection to ensure these intersections are captured. We will also work with government partners to explore the possibility of using more granular data sets for future predictive analysis.  

Contextual Nature of the Data: As this short project focuses on creating an ABM for proof of concept, we chose to work on targeted, manageable, and accessible locations that are relatively stable in the Punjab province. As a result, we only looked at the secondary data from the Lahore division, which is not representative of the nation, or even Punjab as a whole. In other areas of Pakistan, issues of safety, gender, and school access may rank more highly as predictive factors, particularly in remote or unstable areas.

Our team anticipates planning to scale the project to other divisions and provinces in collaboration with key partners.

Next Steps

The Equity Education Project is a multi-stage, iterative project, combining quantitative and qualitative data to create simulations of possible policy outcomes. Our next step is a qualitative investigation of how families perceive and interact with the factors identified in the literature and the secondary analysis to make school enrolment decisions. The findings will help us in enhancing our understanding of the existing data and allow us to identify and close data gaps.

Acknowledgements: We thank Hamna Dogar, Jawad Ali, Anees Amjad, and Shahbakht Mubarik for contributing to this work. Pak Alliance for Maths and Science (PAMS) is the implementation lead for the Equity Equation Project: Predictive Modelling of Policy Impact on School Enrolment.

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Authors: Dr Jessica Albrent (Associate Professor, LUMS), Dr Farah Nadeem (Associate Professor, LUMS) and Dr Faisal Bari (Dean, LUMS School of Education)

Copy-Editor: Maryam Beg Mirza (Assistant Consultant, Education at OPM)

Quality Assurance: Dr Sahar Shah (Senior Research Manager, DARE-RC)

_{The views expressed in this blog are that of the author and do not reflect the views of DARE-RC, the FCDO, and implementing partners.}